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The Variable Frequency Drive (VFD) is an electronic device used to control the speed of an AC motor, by converting the fixed frequency and fixed AC voltage being supplied to the motor into a variable AC frequency and voltage. By adjusting the motor’s input frequency and supply voltage, the VFD can control an AC motor to operate at numerous different speeds. VFDs also have the capability to control ramp-up during motor start-up and ramp-down when stopping the motor. Other alternative names for a Variable Frequency Drive include: Adjustable Frequency Drive (AFD) AC Drive Inverter Frequency Converter Frequency Inverter VFDs are the industry-standard method for controlling both the speed and torque of three-phase AC induction motors. It has always been useful to directly control the speed of AC induction motors used in industrial applications, as nearly every process that uses such motors will benefit from speed control. Not only is the process efficiency improved, but in many cases...
VFD is a motor control device used in electromechanical systems, which drives an electric motor and controls its speed and torque by changing the frequency and voltage of the power supply. The modern VFD drives are capable of integrating networks and diagnostic capabilities for better control performance and more productivity. So, we can say that the three main reasons for choosing VFDs as a controller in an application is saving energy, intelligent motor control, and reducing the peak current drawn. They are commonly used in fans, pumps, and compressors and account for 75 percent of all the drivers operating worldwide. VFDs can perform the following functions: It is a power conversion device that converts the fixed voltage and frequency to variable voltage and frequency, which can control the output of the AC motors. They are often known as speed controllers of the motor. These variable frequency drivers can also control the torque of the motor and keep it constant by maintaining the...
The term HVAC is an acronym that stands for Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning; it broadly describes systems that provide heating and cooling to commercial and residential buildings for environmental comfort. A typical HVAC system includes Heating equipment, Ventilation equipment, and Air-Conditioning or Cooling equipment; the functions of these three elements are interrelated, particularly when providing thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality. For example, the Heating element, which may be a boiler or furnace, includes a piping system for the heat-carrying fluid or ductwork in case of a forced air system. The Ventilation element (either natural or forced) uses fresh outdoor air to provide high-quality indoor air through a process called ventilation–a process of exchanging or replacing air within a designated space. This process also involves the removal of dust and smoke particles, moisture, airborne bacteria, heat, odors, carbon dioxide, and other unwanted gases...
A typical Metal Oxide Varistor (MOV) is generally made of a combination of Zinc Oxide and other types of metal oxides such as Cobalt, Bismuth, and Manganese oxides. The metal oxide substance is arranged between two metal electrodes or plates with no polarity (no positive or negative sides) to interact with each other; so, the two leads of the MOV can be connected in any direction since they conduct electric current in both directions. The Zinc Oxide arrangement gives the MOV similar Volt-Ampere characteristics (V-I characteristics) as a Zener diode. Such that when a moderate or small voltage is supplied across the MOV’s electrodes, only a small amount of current will flow through due to the high resistance of the MOV. If a large voltage is applied across the MOV, its resistance value will decrease significantly and a large amount of current will flow through it. If the flowing current rises to a particular point, known as the breaker point (break over voltage), the zinc oxide...
In industrial automation, the term “drive” is often associated with motor drives, which are types of motor controllers described using various terms such as Variable Speed Drives (VSDs), Adjustable Speed Drives (ASDs), Inverter Drives, Adjustable Frequency Drives (AFD), Variable Frequency Drives (VFDs), AC Drives, Variable-Voltage Drives, …etc. However, even though these terms are used interchangeably, they have different meanings depending on the technique used to control the motor speed and the drive’s application. For example, a Variable Speed Drive is a more generic term that applies to electronic or mechanical devices which control either motor speed or the speed of motor-driven equipment like compressors, fans, pumps, etc. Whereas, a VFD is a device that uses power electronics to vary the frequency of the input voltage to a motor, thereby controlling the motor speed. On the other hand, an Adjustable Speed Drive is also a more generic term that applies to both electrical and...
PLCs and CNCs are two major categories of digital controllers employed in different industrial control applications. On a surface level, it’s easy to group them together since they are both run by programs, digital processors, and they both interface with input and output devices. For example, if you ask a systems programmer whether a CNC controller can be used in place of a PLC system, the answer could be a frustrating variation of “Yes or No.” It’s therefore important to identify the differences between the two control systems, as discussed in this article. In electrical terms, PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. It is a compact, special-purpose computer designed to perform logic operations to control different electro-mechanical systems. Initially, PLCs were developed to perform the functionalities of hard-wired relays in the automotive industry. Today, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are widely used to automate manufacturing processes, assembly lines, and different...
Capacitor Value picoFarad (pF) nanoFarad (nF) microFarad (µF) milliFarad (mF) Farad (F) Inductor Value nanoHenries (nH) microHenries (µH) milliHenries (mH) Henries (H) Results Resonant Frequency (MHz) A Tank circuit is also called an LC circuit, a resonant circuit, or a tuned circuit. It is an idealized RLC electric circuit with zero resistance. It consists only of an Inductor (L) and a Capacitor(C), connected in a series or parallel configuration; hence the name LC circuit. Tank circuits are particularly useful due to their resonance property. They are implemented in a variety of electrical applications, such as frequency tuners, filters, and oscillators. In any AC (Alternating Current) circuit containing Resistance(R), Capacitance(C), and Inductance(L) elements, the voltage phase across the circuit and the current phase in the circuit are generally different. But if you adjust the parameter values of the L or C components or the power supply frequency, you can make the voltage and...
MilliWatts (mW) Watts (W) Decibel-MilliWatts (dBm) Decibel-watts (dBW) MilliWatts (mW) Watts (W) Decibel-MilliWatts (dBm) Decibel-watts (dBW) Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves having magnetic and electric energy radiating together through space at the speed of light. It is described as the energy conveyed through space in a waveform, characterized in terms of frequency for wavelength λ. When all forms of electromagnetic energy are combined, they make up the electromagnetic spectrum, which is the range of frequencies produced by those sources. One form of electromagnetic energy is the Radio waves emitted by transmitting antennas. Thus, Radio Frequency (RF) is a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum, often used for radio transmission. Radio Frequency waves are also characterized in terms of a wavelength λ or a frequency f. Wavelength refers to the distance completed by one full cycle of the electromagnetic wave, while frequency is the number of times the...
Supply Voltage Volts (V) V Capacitance Farad (F) milliFarad (mF) microFarad (µF) nanoFarad (nF) picoFarad (pF) Series Resistance Ohms (Ω) Ω Results Energy (E) Time Constant (τ) Parallel-Plate Capacitor When it comes to electronic devices and electric circuits, energy is typically stored in either batteries or capacitors. Batteries store electrical energy in chemicals, and they are the most common. Capacitors on the other hand possess the ability to store electrical energy in the form of an electric charge, they are less common. Essentially, a capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device, which consists of two conductors with a spacing distance(d) between them. The spacing between the two electrical conductors can be a vacuum or it could be filled with a good insulating material called dielectric. Often, you’ll come across the term “capacitance” which is defined as the ability of a capacitor to store electrical charge. In its basic form, a typical capacitor is made up of two...
Output Power MilliWatts (mW) Watt (W) Decibel-milliwatt (dBm) Decibel-watt (dBW) Gain Linear Linear Distance Feet (ft) Meters (m) Kilometers (km) Centimeters (cm) Miles (mi) Yards (yd) Inches (in) Results Power Density 96.05Watts/m2 Power density is the rate of energy flow per unit mass, area or volume. Most often, it is defined as the time rate of energy transfer per unit volume. The International System of Units (SI) for power density are Watts per cubic meter ( W / m 3 ) . Other common metric units include: Watts per square meter ( W / m 2 ) , Watts per kilogram ( W / kg ) , Horsepower per cubic inch ( hp in 3 ) . While power density is not commonly used as a form of measurement as energy density, it is still a useful performance parameter for most energy systems. For example, in energy transformers including fuel cells, batteries, power supply units, motors etc., power density is measured in terms of volume, often referred to as volume power density, expressed as W/m 3 . Hence...
Wire Diameter mil cm mm µm inch Separation Between Wires mil cm mm µm inch Substrate Dielectric Constant Results Impedance Ohms (Ω) Delay ns/in Inductance nH/in Capacitance pF/in You can create an electrical signal transmission line using two conductors. Twisted-pair (TP) cables are known to make the most effective signal transmission lines. A twisted-pair cable simply consists of two insulated wires twisted together. Normally, a pair of 22 to 26-gauge copper wires with an insulating protective layer are used to make a twisted pair wire. In actual use, multiple twisted pairs are wrapped up in an insulating sleeve to form a twisted pair cable. But in daily life, the term “twisted pair cable” directly refers to the “twisted pair wire”. When several twisted pairs are combined, they form multi-pair twisted cables. The individual conductors in multi-pair cables are twisted into pairs that have varying twists to reduce crosstalk. In such cases, specific color combinations are used for pair...
Newton-meters Foot-pounds Inch-pounds Newton-meters Foot-pounds Inch-pounds Torque is a measure of the force which can make an object rotate about an axis. In linear kinematics, the force causes an object to accelerate linearly, similarly, torque is what causes an object to acquire an angular acceleration. It’s a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the torque vector depends on the direction of force acting on the rotational axis. In physics, torque is simply a twisting or a turning force. Different terminologies are used interchangeably to describe torque such as Moment or Moment of Force. We can say torque is a special case of Moment, as it relates to the rotational axis driving the rotation. On the other hand, for Moment to cause rotation, a driving external force is required. For any object to experiences torque, it must have a pivot point. If you have ever opened a door, then you have an intuitive understanding of torque. Torque is what...
Resistor 1 Ohms (Ω) Ohms (Ω) Resistor 2 Ohms (Ω) Ohms (Ω) Add Results Equivalent Resistance Resistance is defined as the measure of opposition to charge flow (current flow) in an electrical circuit. It is measured in ohms and symbolized by (Ω)-a Greek letter omega. Naturally, all materials oppose current flow to some extent, and they are classified as either conductors or insulators. Conductors are materials that have very little resistance to electrons flow, they include aluminum, silver, gold, copper, and many more. Insulators, on the other hand, are materials that present very high resistance to electrons flow; examples are rubber, plastic, wood, and glass. Basically, a resistor is an ohmic device that limits the flow of current in a circuit. Most electrical circuits consist of more than one resistor. The relationship between voltage, resistance, and current in an electrical circuit with resistors is given by Ohm’s Law. Ohm’s law is expressed as: I = V/R , where I is the circuit...
In manufacturing, costs of production and speeds of finished goods to the market can make or break a company. Traditionally, an inventory of raw materials and of finished products was considered assets. Today, such inventories are considered dead investments or waste, which incur additional capital costs. To eliminate dead investment and optimize their productivity, many manufacturing industries are adopting the Just-In-Time (JIT) philosophy. Originally, JIT manufacturing referred to the production of goods in an effort to meet the exact customer demands with regards to quantity, quality, and delivery time; whether the customer required the final product or a part of it. But with time the meaning of JIT manufacturing has changed to the production of goods with minimum waste. In this case, “waste” is defined in terms of time, raw materials, and resources. Simply, Just-In-Time (JIT) production is a workflow methodology that focuses on reducing flow times for raw materials and products...
In 1969, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) were first introduced into manufacturing processes, and today, they are most widely used for automation and industrial process control. In an industrial setup, PLCs are used to control conveyor systems, to sequence automated devices such as robots, and to capture data and communicate information. Almost any machine function, process or production line is greatly enhanced whenever a PLC control system is used. A PLC system is modular, this allows you to mix and match different types of Output and Input devices to best suit your applications. Nevertheless, the greatest benefit of utilizing a PLC is its ability to replicate and change a given process or operation, while collecting and disseminating essential information. Typically, any PLC has a Central Processing Unit, the CPU, which contains an internal program. The program tells the PLC how to perform various functions such as Execute user defined control instructions that are contained...