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PLCs and CNCs are two major categories of digital controllers employed in different industrial control applications. On a surface level, it’s easy to group them together since they are both run by programs, digital processors, and they both interface with input and output devices. For example, if you ask a systems programmer whether a CNC controller can be used in place of a PLC system, the answer could be a frustrating variation of “Yes or No.” It’s therefore important to identify the differences between the two control systems, as discussed in this article. In electrical terms, PLC stands for Programmable Logic Controller. It is a compact, special-purpose computer designed to perform logic operations to control different electro-mechanical systems. Initially, PLCs were developed to perform the functionalities of hard-wired relays in the automotive industry. Today, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) are widely used to automate manufacturing processes, assembly lines, and different...
Capacitor Value picoFarad (pF) nanoFarad (nF) microFarad (µF) milliFarad (mF) Farad (F) Inductor Value nanoHenries (nH) microHenries (µH) milliHenries (mH) Henries (H) Results Resonant Frequency (MHz) A Tank circuit is also called an LC circuit, a resonant circuit, or a tuned circuit. It is an idealized RLC electric circuit with zero resistance. It consists only of an Inductor (L) and a Capacitor(C), connected in a series or parallel configuration; hence the name LC circuit. Tank circuits are particularly useful due to their resonance property. They are implemented in a variety of electrical applications, such as frequency tuners, filters, and oscillators. In any AC (Alternating Current) circuit containing Resistance(R), Capacitance(C), and Inductance(L) elements, the voltage phase across the circuit and the current phase in the circuit are generally different. But if you adjust the parameter values of the L or C components or the power supply frequency, you can make the voltage and...
MilliWatts (mW) Watts (W) Decibel-MilliWatts (dBm) Decibel-watts (dBW) MilliWatts (mW) Watts (W) Decibel-MilliWatts (dBm) Decibel-watts (dBW) Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves having magnetic and electric energy radiating together through space at the speed of light. It is described as the energy conveyed through space in a waveform, characterized in terms of frequency for wavelength λ. When all forms of electromagnetic energy are combined, they make up the electromagnetic spectrum, which is the range of frequencies produced by those sources. One form of electromagnetic energy is the Radio waves emitted by transmitting antennas. Thus, Radio Frequency (RF) is a frequency within the electromagnetic spectrum, often used for radio transmission. Radio Frequency waves are also characterized in terms of a wavelength λ or a frequency f. Wavelength refers to the distance completed by one full cycle of the electromagnetic wave, while frequency is the number of times the...
Supply Voltage Volts (V) V Capacitance Farad (F) milliFarad (mF) microFarad (µF) nanoFarad (nF) picoFarad (pF) Series Resistance Ohms (Ω) Ω Results Energy (E) Time Constant (τ) Parallel-Plate Capacitor When it comes to electronic devices and electric circuits, energy is typically stored in either batteries or capacitors. Batteries store electrical energy in chemicals, and they are the most common. Capacitors on the other hand possess the ability to store electrical energy in the form of an electric charge, they are less common. Essentially, a capacitor is a two-terminal electrical device, which consists of two conductors with a spacing distance(d) between them. The spacing between the two electrical conductors can be a vacuum or it could be filled with a good insulating material called dielectric. Often, you’ll come across the term “capacitance” which is defined as the ability of a capacitor to store electrical charge. In its basic form, a typical capacitor is made up of two...
Output Power MilliWatts (mW) Watt (W) Decibel-milliwatt (dBm) Decibel-watt (dBW) Gain Linear Linear Distance Feet (ft) Meters (m) Kilometers (km) Centimeters (cm) Miles (mi) Yards (yd) Inches (in) Results Power Density 96.05Watts/m2 Power density is the rate of energy flow per unit mass, area or volume. Most often, it is defined as the time rate of energy transfer per unit volume. The International System of Units (SI) for power density are Watts per cubic meter ( W / m 3 ) . Other common metric units include: Watts per square meter ( W / m 2 ) , Watts per kilogram ( W / kg ) , Horsepower per cubic inch ( hp in 3 ) . While power density is not commonly used as a form of measurement as energy density, it is still a useful performance parameter for most energy systems. For example, in energy transformers including fuel cells, batteries, power supply units, motors etc., power density is measured in terms of volume, often referred to as volume power density, expressed as W/m 3 . Hence...
Wire Diameter mil cm mm µm inch Separation Between Wires mil cm mm µm inch Substrate Dielectric Constant Results Impedance Ohms (Ω) Delay ns/in Inductance nH/in Capacitance pF/in You can create an electrical signal transmission line using two conductors. Twisted-pair (TP) cables are known to make the most effective signal transmission lines. A twisted-pair cable simply consists of two insulated wires twisted together. Normally, a pair of 22 to 26-gauge copper wires with an insulating protective layer are used to make a twisted pair wire. In actual use, multiple twisted pairs are wrapped up in an insulating sleeve to form a twisted pair cable. But in daily life, the term “twisted pair cable” directly refers to the “twisted pair wire”. When several twisted pairs are combined, they form multi-pair twisted cables. The individual conductors in multi-pair cables are twisted into pairs that have varying twists to reduce crosstalk. In such cases, specific color combinations are used for pair...
Newton-meters Foot-pounds Inch-pounds Newton-meters Foot-pounds Inch-pounds Torque is a measure of the force which can make an object rotate about an axis. In linear kinematics, the force causes an object to accelerate linearly, similarly, torque is what causes an object to acquire an angular acceleration. It’s a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction. The direction of the torque vector depends on the direction of force acting on the rotational axis. In physics, torque is simply a twisting or a turning force. Different terminologies are used interchangeably to describe torque such as Moment or Moment of Force. We can say torque is a special case of Moment, as it relates to the rotational axis driving the rotation. On the other hand, for Moment to cause rotation, a driving external force is required. For any object to experiences torque, it must have a pivot point. If you have ever opened a door, then you have an intuitive understanding of torque. Torque is what...
Resistor 1 Ohms (Ω) Ohms (Ω) Resistor 2 Ohms (Ω) Ohms (Ω) Add Results Equivalent Resistance Resistance is defined as the measure of opposition to charge flow (current flow) in an electrical circuit. It is measured in ohms and symbolized by (Ω)-a Greek letter omega. Naturally, all materials oppose current flow to some extent, and they are classified as either conductors or insulators. Conductors are materials that have very little resistance to electrons flow, they include aluminum, silver, gold, copper, and many more. Insulators, on the other hand, are materials that present very high resistance to electrons flow; examples are rubber, plastic, wood, and glass. Basically, a resistor is an ohmic device that limits the flow of current in a circuit. Most electrical circuits consist of more than one resistor. The relationship between voltage, resistance, and current in an electrical circuit with resistors is given by Ohm’s Law. Ohm’s law is expressed as: I = V/R , where I is the circuit...
In manufacturing, costs of production and speeds of finished goods to the market can make or break a company. Traditionally, an inventory of raw materials and of finished products was considered assets. Today, such inventories are considered dead investments or waste, which incur additional capital costs. To eliminate dead investment and optimize their productivity, many manufacturing industries are adopting the Just-In-Time (JIT) philosophy. Originally, JIT manufacturing referred to the production of goods in an effort to meet the exact customer demands with regards to quantity, quality, and delivery time; whether the customer required the final product or a part of it. But with time the meaning of JIT manufacturing has changed to the production of goods with minimum waste. In this case, “waste” is defined in terms of time, raw materials, and resources. Simply, Just-In-Time (JIT) production is a workflow methodology that focuses on reducing flow times for raw materials and products...
In 1969, Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs) were first introduced into manufacturing processes, and today, they are most widely used for automation and industrial process control. In an industrial setup, PLCs are used to control conveyor systems, to sequence automated devices such as robots, and to capture data and communicate information. Almost any machine function, process or production line is greatly enhanced whenever a PLC control system is used. A PLC system is modular, this allows you to mix and match different types of Output and Input devices to best suit your applications. Nevertheless, the greatest benefit of utilizing a PLC is its ability to replicate and change a given process or operation, while collecting and disseminating essential information. Typically, any PLC has a Central Processing Unit, the CPU, which contains an internal program. The program tells the PLC how to perform various functions such as Execute user defined control instructions that are contained...
The printed circuit board (PCB) invention ushered in a radical change in electrical and electronic technology. This success has led to the continued improvement of many devices and smaller and even miniature profiles for others. It has also resulted in entirely new classes of products across almost every industry. And it isn’t easy to imagine a powered device or appliance without a PCB. As the technology has matured, two distinct methods for producing PCBs emerged. The first is surface mount technology (SMT). Because PCB components became smaller over time, SMT became the dominant technology by volume. In SMT, components are mounted directly onto the bare board surface. Instead of wires, tabs and connectors are used with solder to complete the board circuitry. Through-hole technology (THT), holes are drilled in the bare board, and wires are run through the holes to connect the components. One side of the board will have “trace holes” to mark the path of the wiring. Wires are soldered...
According to ISA, automation is defined as “the technique of making an apparatus, a process, or a system operate automatically”. In a more practical sense, it is a system that operates with minimum or no human intervention at all. It has been part of the development of mankind all along however, the concept was further realized after the mass production system was finally implemented. With automation in the mass production setup, consistent and uniform outputs may be produced. Absolutely, this cannot be achieved with manual and traditional automation. Fast forward today, a control system – whether commercial or industrial scope, meets the modern automation requirements if it is programmable. With the birth of the 1st programmable controller and the enhancement in the succeeding years, most control systems are now being governed by programmable controllers. Programmable controllers can be used in both home and industrial setup. They are also the core components of automation. They...
In recent years, machine learning has found applications in new and often unexpected areas. With the novel coronavirus outbreak in 2019 and 2020, it makes sense that many have tried to apply machine learning and artificial intelligence to various problems relating to the disease. From modeling the spread of the disease to searching for possible drugs and vaccines, machine learning has been integral to understanding many of the problems caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Case Study – Disease Dynamics A simple internet search will lead you to hundreds of dashboards showing the current number of coronavirus cases around the world. This stems from how easy it is to access data relating to the virus, especially from reputable sources like Kaggle or Johns Hopkins . This data, along with sophisticated models for disease dynamics has, for example, enabled predictive modeling for the number of people who actually have the virus and the risk of hosting an event in any county in the US . Some...
The position of a shaft within a machine can affect several concerns including safety, quality, volume and other variables. To monitor and control information that can be obtained from the shaft position and rotation, encoders were devised to measure and control the data and motion of the machine along the shaft. There are two types of rotary encoders used today – incremental and absolute. The most common, the incremental encoder, provides position information in real-time. These encoders can measure up to 10,000 counts per revolution and transmit position changes quickly. As a result, they are used in applications that require highly accurate position and velocity measurements. Incremental encoders are available in a variety of technologies depending on applications. These may include mechanical, optical or magnetic sensors which help determine precise positions. They may act as a potentiometer, volume control, and other applications where fine tuning is required. Absolute Encoder...
In part 1, we discussed general safety terms and categories and covered the concept of risk. By understanding risk, we can determine a structure for the architecture needed to manage that risk. That structure will result in a controller that accomplishes all the tasks involved with the lowest acceptable risk to equipment and staff. In part 2, we will dig deeper into terms and categories to understand their impact on machine safety. The concept of building this structure is called Functional Safety Engineering. Here, functional safety means that the automation protection protocols correctly operate in response to inputs. According to the International Electrotechnical Commission 61508 (IEC): “Functional safety is the detection of a potentially dangerous condition resulting in the activation of a protective or corrective device or mechanism to prevent hazardous events arising or providing mitigation to reduce the consequence of the hazardous event ”. Functional safety is achieved by...
